The basic problem of economics can also be presented as a problem of choice. Indeed, if each factor used to satisfy various needs is limited, then there is always the problem of alternative use and search for the best combination of factors of production, that is, the problem of choice. A reflection of this problem is the statement three main questions economy.

Three main questions of economics:

What? – problem of targeting.

– Which of the possible goods and services should be produced in a given economic space and at a given time? – How? production problem.

– With what combination of production resources, using what technology, should the selected goods and services be produced? – For whom? distribution problem.

– Who will buy the selected goods and pay for them, benefiting from them? How should society's gross income from the production of these goods and services be distributed? The fourth question, which also inevitably faces every society, is the question: How?

How to get rid of waste generated in the process of life, how to maintain the ecological balance in nature without reducing the level of consumption. This

recycling problem.

5. Production possibilities in the economic system and the problem of choice. The production capabilities of the economic system are limited by the scarcity of the resources used. Moreover, the limitation of all economic resources remains and even increases as society develops. This is due not only to the depletion of irreplaceable natural resources, but also to the fact that consumption constantly gives impetus to the development of production, that is, new goods and services are created, their quality characteristics change, which causes an increase in the need for consumer and investment goods. And each time society is forced to decide which of these goods to produce with available resources and on what scale.. And also, this model allows you to clearly demonstrate such fundamental economic concepts as limited resources, opportunity costs.

To build the model, we will plot the number of consumer goods (X) on the abscissa axis, and the number of means of production (Y) on the ordinate axis (see figure).

Means of production (Y)

Consumables (X)

O X B X C

The ABCD curve, called production possibilities frontier, characterizes the maximum possible volumes of production of means of production and consumer goods with full use of all available resources. Each point on this curve represents a certain combination of goods of these two types (for example, point B represents a combination of X B units of consumer goods and Y B units of capital goods.

The production possibilities frontier graph illustrates the fact that an economy that is fully utilizing productive resources cannot increase the production of any good without sacrificing another good. The functioning of an economy at the frontier of its production possibilities indicates its efficiency.

Based on this, the choice of the combination corresponding to point F is regarded as unsuccessful for a given society, since it does not allow it to effectively use production resources. Having chosen such a point, we would resign ourselves either to the presence of unused resources (for example, unemployment) or to the low efficiency of their use (for example, large losses, including working time). Production based on the choice of point E is generally unfeasible, since this point lies beyond the production capabilities of a given economic system.

Let's compare points B and C. By choosing point B, we will prefer to produce fewer consumer goods (X B) and more means of production (Y B) than by choosing point C (X C, Y C). More precisely, when moving from point B to point C, we will additionally receive Δ X = OX C – OX B units of consumer goods, sacrificing for this ΔY = OY B – OY C units of means of production. The amount of one good that must be sacrificed to increase the production of another good by one unit is called opportunity costs or costs of lost opportunities.

The ABCD curve is convex. This is due to the fact that one resource can be used more productively in the production of consumer goods, while others can be used as means of production.

If new technology, new technological processes are introduced simultaneously and evenly in all industries, then the production possibilities frontier AD will move to the position of the dotted line A 1 D 1, the possibilities of producing both means of production and consumer goods with the same resources will increase approximately equally ( see fig.).

If innovations are carried out primarily in industries producing capital goods, the increase in the area of ​​production possibilities will be skewed to the right (see figure).

The stable state of the state depends on its economic development. This process is multifaceted and involves many systems. Each country creates its own economic model, which it relies on to improve its financial system. Despite their own developments, these models are similar and have common patterns.

Concept

Economic development is a positive sign of the level of the economy in the context of expanded production and gradual improvement in quality, productive forces and various areas of society.

In addition, economic development represents the formation of relationships in society. It occurs in the established conditions of the economic system and the process by which material wealth is distributed.

People first started talking about economic development in 1911. Schumpeter wrote the book “The Theory of Economic Development,” where, in addition to the main provisions and classifications, he pointed out the discrepancy between the concepts of “development” and “economic growth.” Economic growth is aimed at increasing quantitative indicators, but development indicates a positive movement in changes in quality, innovation and production.

Russia is developing

Russia's economic development should be viewed separately from the rest of the world. It so happened that this model remained from the times of the USSR, and the economy is developing in a post-communist direction. Despite the similarity of problems with other countries, Russia has not left socialism, and therefore solves crises in a different direction.

Russia's economic development began in 1999. This happened for several reasons:

1. Overcoming the 1998 crisis and improving the level of the oil market.
2. Effective reforms of the Russian government.

Globalization has also had a huge impact on the development of the financial sector. This is a process in which world economic relations occur with the economic dependence of countries. Globalization is now affecting the economies of many other countries. The growth of trade volumes and financial flows significantly outpaces material production.

In the economic development of Russia one can easily find similarities with the systems of other countries: nature, purpose and content. The Soviet financial system, which is used by the Russian government, is now considered the most powerful mechanism that accumulates capital and separates labor from property.

Among other things, innovation, a high level of technological production, the creation of competitive products, as well as effective cooperation on the world market also play a decisive role.

Social component

Socio-economic development implies a certain system that includes the dynamic development of production processes, exchanges, distribution and consumption of material and other goods.

Due to the fact that the socio-economic system is a complex and multifunctional scheme, it contains many properties, taking into account which it can be characterized and modeled. Socio-economic development includes:

• changes in public consciousness;
• change of traditions and habits;
• development of production and income;
• changing the structure of society from the point of view of institutions, society and administrations.

The process of this development has the following tasks:

1. Improving income levels, caring for public health, as well as quality education.
2. Formation of conditions under which the level of self-esteem of people increases, thanks to the creation of certain systems (social, economic, political, etc.).
3. Protecting the economic freedom of citizens.

Ministry

The Ministry of Economic Development is a state body that is responsible for the development, implementation and control of economic policy in the country, and also ensures the stability of trade with other powers through representative offices.

In Russia, the Ministry of Economic Development is a federal department that is responsible for implementing state policy and creating appropriate legislation. In addition, he is engaged in forecasting socio-economic development, the functioning of entrepreneurial activity, small businesses, as well as legal entities and entrepreneurs.

Features of the European world

Each state in the world develops its own characteristics of economic development. The countries of the European Union have similar economic systems, and therefore they are classified as a group of states with the same type of financial system. Each of the European powers has a high rate of economic development.

The most powerful countries in this territory are Germany, France, Italy and Great Britain. In the European region, it is these countries that play the main role in shaping the direction of economic, social and political development.

The remaining states belong to the small group. But they also have a fairly stable and strong economy. They are responsible for the narrow typification of production and the generation of high-quality products.

Developed society

Specialists in economics and political science closely monitor the dynamics of economic progress in countries every hour. The quality of life in them is also influenced by constructive changes taking place in national monetary circulation systems.

The economic development of society is a process that has many details and covers all spheres of the economy. Indicators of this process can be various figures, the main ones being GDP/ND.

Due to the fact that the process of economic development of society is complex and multifaceted, the level of the economy is measured through economic growth and its data, and more specifically, through changes in production volumes.

The development of the society's economy is not stable. Moreover, this phenomenon not only indicates an increase in indicators, but also sometimes has an underestimated degree. In the 90s In the CIS countries, there was a sharp decline in economic development associated with low levels of production, degradation of the economic structure, as well as a low standard of living of the population.

Country level

As mentioned earlier, due to the fact that progress has expanded indicators, it is difficult to determine the level of economic development with just one name. This is also due to the fact that the geographical and historical criteria are different for each state; one cannot immediately find similarities in the combination of material and financial resources.

So, in addition to GDP/ND indicators, you should pay attention to the structure of the economy and the level of quality of life. Let's look at each of them in more detail.

GDP/ND are the very leading values ​​in determining the level of economic development. For example, ND in terms of purchasing power in the small European country of Luxembourg is more than 51 thousand dollars. For comparison, in the USA this figure is 36 thousand. Although it is obvious that the economic potential of the first and second countries is incomparable. In Russia, the ND is almost 8 thousand dollars, and this indicates that the country does not reach the developed ones, but can honorably take a place in the developing group.

It should be noted that even if the GDP/ND indicators in one country are higher than in another, this does not prove that the first power is more developed. Therefore, other values ​​of economic development are also taken into account for the definition. Some states have not yet been able to acquire an economic structure that would meet modern requirements. According to these indicators, Russia could be classified as a developed country rather than a developing one.

But quality of life has many meanings. This includes life expectancy, educational characteristics, resistance to disease immunity, medical care functions, personal protection, environmental conditions, etc. Some values ​​can be combined using the human development index.

Development systems

The development of economic systems went through three stages. Before we look at them, we should pay attention to the concept itself. Economic systems are synonymous with the economic structure of society. In its own way, it is a collection of certain elements that are interconnected and represent a certain integrity.

So, all existing economic systems, one way or another, have gone through three stages of development. The first is pre-industrial society. At this time, the main income was subsistence production based on agriculture. Due to the low rates of social evolution, man had to relate himself to the biological cycle of nature and completely depend on it.

This stage is characterized by the fact that the form of the economy did not have a social division of labor and was closed. Pre-industrial society was content with its own resources and their use. At that time, we could not talk about technical equipment, since the development of this system was at a low level.

The second stage was industrial society. After the Industrial Revolution, production structures led to the replacement of productive forces with social ones. Factory production was formed, and the nature of work changed. The priority of the city over the countryside is immediately reversed. Commodity-money processes became universal.

As a result of the scientific and technological revolution, changes occurred in the economic system, and it entered the third stage - post-industrial society. Science becomes a productive force, and on the wave of a general revolution, a post-industrial economy emerges. Knowledge and information become the main tools of development. Thus the stages of economic development ended.

Strategy

An economic development strategy is a scheme according to which long-term management of socio-economic processes in the economic system takes place. The economic strategy is developed by the state for several years (up to 15).

It defines the development goals of the financial sector in the context of the national economy, improving the performance of individual industries and regions. At the same time, the relevant authorities find the most effective ways to achieve their goals using certain methods and means.

Region

The economic development of a region is a process in which the regional authorities achieve their intended economic goals in the face of crisis and other changes. The main goal of this process is to improve the quality of life of the population. At the same time, the tasks that the government authority sets for itself are similar to those that shape the economic development of the state in a crisis situation. First of all, this is an increase in average income, quality of education, nutrition and protection of the health and life of citizens.

In this concept there is the term sustainable development of the region. In this case, stable positive indicators can be observed, indicating changes, but leaving the system balanced.

Management of economic development of the region

The main tool for managing the economic development of the region is strategic planning. This term means strategic management and the method of modern management. In some situations, this option is not only desirable and effective, but also a necessary management method.

Strategic management can be used in industry, agriculture, construction and other industries. This method will solve the main question: how to get out of the crisis and improve the quality of life.

As a result of studying the material in the chapter, the student will:

know

• basic provisions of the economic theory of supply;
• the history of its origin and main representatives;
• its place in the development of economic theory and its role in shaping the economic policies of Western countries in the 1970s;

be able to

• analyze from different points of view the positive and negative aspects of state intervention in the economy;
• evaluate the economic effects of tax policy pursued by the state;
• trace the impact of the budget deficit on the price level and business climate in the country;

own

• the basic concepts put forward by supply-side economics;
• the logic of the theory in criticizing both Keynesian policies and the “heavy state” in general.

Prerequisites for the emergence of the economic theory of supply

Economic theory of supply ( supply-sideeconomics) was formed in the late 70s. XX century and represents one of the currents of neoconservative economic thought.

The main representatives economic theory of supply can be called M. Feldstein And A. Laffer. The development of this school was greatly facilitated by the Canadian economist and politician Robert Mandel (Robert Mundell, b. 1932, Nobel Prize in Economics 1999).

The American economist also belongs to this school R. Barrow (R. Barro), journalist J. Wanniski (J. Wanniski), economist V. Kanto (V. Canto).

This movement can hardly be called a school in the strict sense of the word, since it does not have a leader, a unified theoretical position, and is close to monetarism in many issues. A. Laffer in the book called it "nothing more than a new label for standard neoclassical economics." In addition, many supporters of this direction, the so-called seplysiders, were practical economists rather than theorists, and most of what they wrote was of a journalistic nature. This is not surprising if we take into account that the emergence of supply-side economic theory is closely related to the political and economic processes that took place in the United States in the 70s and 80s. XX century

Important to remember!

It has a pronounced anti-Keynesian character. If Keynesian theory is based on the need to intensify demand in the economy and therefore it is often called economic theory of demand (demand-side economics), then the economic theory of supply, as its name implies, considers the main economic task to stimulate supply.

This position was determined by the economic reality of the 1970s. Over the previous two decades, the US economy, as well as Western European countries, experienced rapid economic growth. The production boom was accompanied by intensive growth in incomes of all segments of the population. A capacious consumer market was formed. The level and quality of demand from society has increased. This was also facilitated by scientific and technological progress, which caused a wave of demand for new equipment from industry and for new goods from consumers.

Under these conditions, the problem of stimulating effective demand has ceased to be relevant. At the same time, observed in the 1970s. low levels of production and rising unemployment, accompanied by rising inflation, were, from the point of view of supporters of supply-side economics, evidence of a serious deterioration in the business climate and a decline in the level of entrepreneurial activity. Saplesiders believed that this was a consequence of Keynesian policies, which were accompanied by increased government spending and budget deficits. This policy led to inflationary expectations in the economy and fueled price increases. At the same time, the tax burden has increased significantly, which always has a negative impact on business activity. Finally, active economic regulation has increased uncertainty, constraining business activity and increasing risks.

The economic program of the school itself is clearly liberal in nature. Its main point is to reduce the state’s share in the economy and, first of all, to reduce the tax burden placed on entrepreneurs and social groups with high incomes.

Historical excursion

The formation of this program is closely connected with the political career of American President Ronald Reagan, starting with his assumption of the post of governor of California. In the 1970s In this state, a broad social movement arose, supported by economists (in particular, A. Laffer), which opposed high taxes. R. Reagan, as governor of this state, supported these demands and passed a law to significantly reduce property taxes. According to some estimates, Reagan's commitment to the new tax policy ensured his subsequent success in the presidential election. The new movement developed in other states, which gave rise to talk about the “tax revolution” that occurred in the United States during this period. In the 1980s, having become President of the United States, Reagan continued his course of liberalizing the economy and creating a favorable climate for private business. From 1982 to 1984, the Committee of Economic Advisers to the President was headed by M. Feldstein, who was directly involved in the formation of the new tax policy.

One of the main representatives of supply-side economic theory is Martin Feldstein (Martin Feldstein, b. 1939), professor at Harvard University. From 1978 to 2008, M. Feldstein headed the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). He was an economic adviser not only to R. Reagan, but also to George W. Bush, in particular, one of the developers of the program for partial privatization of the social insurance system. He is known primarily for his work in the field of macroeconomics and public finance. Feldstein's main work was devoted to the analysis of the public sector, in particular health care: "Economic analysis of the effectiveness of the healthcare system" (1967) , "Health Economics" (1979) , "Handbook of public sector economics"(1987) In 1983, two of his works devoted to the problem of taxation were published: "Inflation, tax regulation and capital formation" And " Taxation of capital " . In 1988, a voluminous empirical study was published " United States in the world economy " . In 1977, Feldstein received the J.B. Medal for his public sector research. Clark.

Another prominent representative of the school is Arthur Laffer (Arthur Laffer, b. 1941). He played a key role in the passage of the famous "Thirteenth Amendment" to the California Constitution, which began the so-called "tax revolution." During the period 1981–1989 was a member of President Reagan's Economic Policy Advisory Council. His main works: "The phenomenon of global inflation" (1975) , "The Economic Theory of the Tax Revolution" (1979), "Fundamentals of the economic theory of supply" (1984) .

Economic theory of supply, as the seplysiders themselves declare, stands on the methodological positions of the neoclassical school and represents the application of neoclassical analysis to the macroeconomic aspects of the influence of tax policy on the economy.

In many theoretical positions it is close to monetarism, and this is not surprising, because most of the theorists of this direction came from the University of Chicago. In particular, representatives of the economic theory of supply, as well as M. Friedman, rely on strictly empirical analysis, believing that only the analysis of real facts makes it possible to identify existing economic patterns. Thus, M. Feldstein's service at the US National Bureau of Economic Research (and, accordingly, the opportunity to analyze a large volume of empirical data) created the basis for his research on tax policy and its consequences for the economy.

As already noted, it is clearly expressed anti-Keynesian orientation the school we are considering. This is manifested not only in the critical attitude of the seplysiders to state intervention in the economy, but also in their theoretical positions. In particular, supply side economics ignores the problem of converting savings into investments, important for Keynesianism, based on the equality of these two indicators. At the same time it supports M. Friedman's concept of permanent income, according to which the size of consumption depends on that part of income that is constant and therefore does not decrease with income growth. Thus, the Keynesian problem of effective demand, which consists of investment and consumption, is refuted as non-existent - as income grows, savings, which are investments, grow, and the level of consumption does not decrease.

The views of the authors of supply-side economic theory on unemployment are also close to monetarism. They assume the existence of a natural rate of unemployment and consider policies to achieve full employment useless. Saplesiders ignored such an important concept for Keynesianism as "involuntary unemployment" and consider frictional And voluntary unemployment, with emphasis on the latter.

At the same time, there are also differences between these two schools. Monetarism places its main emphasis on the sphere of monetary circulation, limiting its analysis to the study of the influence of the money supply on basic economic indicators. The economic theory of supply puts at the center of its research the problem of creating a favorable business climate for industrial development, i.e. supply growth. Thus, she focuses primarily on production problems. This allows researchers to say that it returns to the tradition of classical political economy.

Important to remember!

We can distinguish 3 main directions of economic thought: 1) neoclassical, 2) Keynesian, 3) institutional-sociological.

Representatives of the neoclassical movement are Menger and Wieser.

The neoclassical direction is represented by the following theories:

1) Marginalism is a theory that represents the economy as a system of interconnected economic entities and explains economic processes and phenomena, based on the new idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe implementation of marginal extreme values, cat. What is important is not the essence of the phenomenon, but their changes in connection with changes in other phenomena and processes. (Marginalists have replaced qualitative economic analysis with quantitative analysis. Scientists strive to optimize the use of limited resources) The main category is marginal utility, pre-cost. Marginalism is based on political analysis and uses economic and mathematical models, which are based on subjective assessments.

2) Monetarism is a theory of economic stabilization in which monetary factors play a dominant role. Monetarists reduce economic management primarily to state control over the money supply, the issue of money, the amount of money in circulation or reserves. Achieving a balanced state budget and establishing high bank interest rates.

3) Neoliberalism is a movement according to which it is necessary to reduce state intervention in the economy, because private enterprise can lead the economy out of crisis and ensure its recovery and the well-being of the population. Hence, it is important to provide the maximum possible freedom to entrepreneurs and traders in economic activities.

The Keynesian direction focused on the problems of macroeconomics, which studies the economy as a whole, as a large system. Keynes stated that the basis for the successful functioning of the economy is the formation of effective demand and the factors influencing its change. Keynesianism focused on three problems: the stability of the market system, its ability to maintain full employment; the role of money; long-term dynamics of a market economy. Keynes created the theoretical basis for government management of aggregate demand and foresaw the ever-increasing role of the state in this area. Keynes explored the functional quantitative aspects of the laws of reproduction in conditions of crisis and a gigantic level of socialization. In order to ensure, through government regulation, measures for the smooth functioning of the economy. He formulated a macroeconomic analysis of the interdependence of aggregate indicators: national income, investment, consumption, savings, etc.

Institutional - sociological direction (Galbraith, Veblen). The name of the concept comes from the Latin word “institutum” - establishment, arrangement, establishment. All its supporters view the economy as a system where relations between economic entities are formed under the influence of economic and non-economic factors, including cats. Techno-economic factors play an exceptional role. The concept of “institutum” is interpreted very broadly: enterprise, corporation, competition, etc. In this direction eq. The theory notes the disadvantages of capitalism: the dominance of monopolies, the growing militarization of the economy. This direction appeared as a reaction to the spread of marginalism. In the institutional-sociological direction, an important place is occupied by the problem of transforming modern society under the influence of the scientific and technological process, the transition from an industrial society to a post-industrial one. Its supporters believe that NTP leads to overcoming social contradictions and a conflict-free social evolution of society. Neo-institutionalism is characterized by a departure from the absolutization of technical factors and greater attention to people and social problems.

More on topic 2. Main directions of economic thought:

1. EVOLUTIONARY METHOD AS A METHOD FOR RESEARCHING THE HISTORY OF ECONOMIC THOUGHT
2. 1. The emergence and development of economic theory. Characteristics of the main currents of economic thought
3. Question 56. Classification of theories and trends in world economic thought
4. § 4. Qualitative and quantitative problem of money.-Main directions in the question of the essence of money,-Abstract-nominalistic theory.-State-nominalistic theory.-Theory of trust.-Commodity-metallistic theory.-Functional theory,-
5. 1. The main stages in the development of economic science and the formation of its subject.
6. 2. ORIGIN AND MAIN STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMIC THEORY
7. 3. MAIN DIRECTIONS OF MODERN ECONOMIC THOUGHT
8. 1.2. MAIN DIRECTIONS OF ECONOMIC THOUGHT AT THE TURN OF THE MILLENNIUM

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4-3 thousand years BC e. - the most ancient centers of civilization appeared in the Middle East (Sumer, Sumero-Akkad, Babylonia), as well as in Egypt. India and China.

2-1 thousand years BC e. - production of production tools, weapons and household items from bronze and copper.

1 thousand years BC e. - the beginning of the Iron Age.

XVIII century BC e. - the appearance of the Code of King Hammurabi in Babylonia.

XVIII-XII centuries BC e. - Crete-Mycenaean period in Ancient Greece.

XI-IX centuries BC e. - Homeric period.

VIII-VI centuries BC e. - archaic (polis) period.

VIII-VI centuries BC e. - peaceful Greek colonization.

621 BC e. - the emergence of the Draconian law in Athens.

594 BC e. - Solon's laws.

509 BC e. - Cleisthenes' laws.

338 BC e. - the conquest of Ancient Greece by A. Macedonian and the beginning of the Hellenistic era.

146 BC e. - transformation of Greece into a province of Ancient Rome.

750s BC e. - founding of Rome.

450s BC e. - the “Laws of the XII Tables” became known in Rome.

395 BC e. - the collapse of the Ancient Roman Empire into Western and Eastern.

476 BC e. - the fall of Rome under the blows of European barbarian tribes.

VII-VI centuries BC e. - the appearance of the first metal money in Ancient Greece, Rome, China and the first banks in the cities of Greece.

I century n. e. - development of colonata (tenancy relations) in the Roman Empire.

VI century - formation of the Frankish state and emergence

"Salic truth"

VII century - the start of the first ever "fair" in

France (Saint Denis).

VIII century - invention of gunpowder in China.

XII century - issue of the first securities in Italian cities.

X-XII centuries - development of feudal estates in Japan.

XI-XIV centuries - the rise of the French seigneury, as well as feudal relations in England and Germany.

1381 - peasant uprising in England led by Wat Tyler.

1358 - mass anti-feudal uprising of peasants in France (Jacquerie).

XIII century - the creation in Europe of an anti-piracy river trade union, then a union of sea merchants (Hansa).

XII-XV centuries - the formation and flourishing of the guild system in Europe.

XIII-XIV centuries. - "communal" revolutions in European cities.

XIV - mid. XVIII century - development of manufacturing production in Europe.

XVI century - Reformation of the Catholic Church and the formation of the Protestant religion in European countries.

1492 - discovery of America by X. Columbus, the beginning of the Great Geographical Discoveries and the formation of colonial empires.

1498 - discovery of the sea route to India by Vasco da Gama.

1642-1649 - English bourgeois revolution.

1694 - establishment of the Bank of England.

1775-1783 - War of Independence of the North American States.

1789, August 5 - adoption by the Constituent Assembly of France of the Declaration on the complete destruction of the feudal regime.

1800 - creation of the Bank of France.

1760-1780s - Industrial Revolution in England.

From ser. XIX century - industrial revolution in the USA and Germany.

1830s - construction of the first railways in England, France, USA, Germany.

Second floor. XVIII century - the formation of a factory system in England for the first time in the world.

Per. floor. XIX century - abolition of serfdom in Prussia.

1861-1865 - American Civil War.

1870-1871 - The Franco-Prussian War and the unification of Germany.

Since 1868 - the Meiji revolution in Japan, the development of the country along the capitalist path.

VIII century - formation of the proto-state Northern Rus'.

882 - creation of the Old Russian state.

946 - first economic reform.

1016 - appearance of "Russian Truth".

Ser. XII century - the beginning of feudal fragmentation in Rus'.

1240 - fall of Kyiv under the blows of the Horde. Completion of the period of development of the Old Russian state.

1480 - the final end of Rus''s dependence on the Tatar-Mongols.

Ser. XVI century - formation of the Russian centralized state and the beginning of the reforms of Ivan IV.

1497 - "Code of Law" of Ivan III.

1550 - "Code of Law" of Ivan IV.

1649 - registration of serfdom in the “Cathedral Code”.

XVII century - emergence of the first manufactories.

1698-1725 - reforms of Peter I.

Ser. XVIII century - creation of the first banks.

Since 1769, the first paper notes were issued.

1830s - the beginning of the industrial revolution.

1837 - the beginning of agrarian reform in the state village under the leadership of P. D. Kiselev.

1843-1851 - construction of a railway between St. Petersburg and Moscow.

1860 - establishment of the State Bank of Russia.

1861, February 19 - the appearance of the “Manifesto” and “Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom.”

1864 - the emergence of the country's first private commercial bank.

1882 - creation of the "Union of Rail Manufacturers" - the first monopolistic association in industry.

1906-1916 - Stolypin agrarian reform.

1917, October 25-26 - creation of the Council of People's Commissars at the Second Congress of Soviets, adoption of the "Decree on Land" and "Decree on Peace".

1922, December 30 - formation at the first Congress of Soviets of the USSR as part of the RSFSR, Ukrainian SSR, BSSR, ZSFSR.

1939-1940 - inclusion of Western countries into the USSR. Ukraine, Western Bukovina, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia in accordance with the Soviet-German Treaty of Friendship and Border.

1954 - the beginning of the development of virgin and fallow lands.

1957, October 4 - launch of the world's first artificial Earth satellite in the USSR. 1961, April 12 - Yuri Gagarin's flight into space.

1963 - the beginning of mass purchases of grain abroad.

1985-1991 - period of "perestroika".

Representatives of the classical school of political economy of the second half of the 18th century in France

Of the main civilizations named by A. Toynbee (21), many existed only in the era of the Ancient World. According to the theory of cyclicity, characteristic of the countries of the Ancient East, they stopped their development long ago. The scientist names among them “undeveloped civilizations,” “unrelated civilizations,” and “satellite civilizations.” Without denying the presence of a number of civilizations during the Ancient World, we admit that approximately six thousand years ago they moved from a union of tribes or a proto-state to a state. In this case, they proved the legitimacy of their existence by legislating on the basis of the emerging written language.

It is interesting that A. Toynbee opposed the concept of contemporary European scientists “about the unity of civilization” on the basis of identifying the entire world civilization with Western society.

Recently, more and more attention has been paid to the study of the history of pre-Columbian civilizations of America as the fifth oldest center of civilization.

Initially, in ancient Eastern states, the one who was in power owned the main property. Hence the concept of the “power-property” system (see Vasiliev L. S. History of the East. M.: Higher School, 1999. Vol. I-II and a number of his other works).

The classification of the Laws of Hammurabi, their division into sections and the grouping of articles in them were carried out by researchers in the 20th century

In Sect. 3.5, 5.3, 6.3, 7.3 the materials of L. S. Vasiliev are used to a certain extent (See Vasiliev JI. S. “History of the East”. - M.: Higher School. - 1993. - T. 1, 2; etc. his works).

To this day, a significant portion of Canadians speak French as their native language.

Neoclassicists are wrong: the price of goods, wages of workers in various fields and interest rates in banking cannot be levers for regulating a market economy; Toponymy is the science of the life of peoples, taking into account data on the names of rivers, lakes, mountains, and various settlements.

In the domestic and foreign sources known to us, the terms “Northern Russia”, “Kievan Rus”, “Old Russian state” are not traced. All of them are conditional.

More details about other liberal reforms of 1860-1870. can be read in textbooks for the course "History of Russia".

For example, the secret of constructing religious and secular buildings from large-sized bricks connected with a mortar of special strength has been lost.

In those days, representatives of other peoples from the West were also called “Germans”: Danes, Swedes, Norwegians, etc.

We agree with this conclusion of well-known domestic economists, as well as a number of foreign researchers.

And so it happened - during all the years of Soviet power, the demand of consumers (individuals and legal entities) exceeded the supply from manufacturers