Processuality of cognition lies in the fact that cognitive activity is a progression from ignorance to knowledge, from error to truth, from incomplete, imperfect, incomplete knowledge to more complete, perfect knowledge. The goal of knowledge is the achievement of truth.
What is truth? How are truth and error related? How is truth obtained and what are its criteria? J. Locke wrote about the meaning of achieving truth: “The mind’s search for truth is a kind of falconry or hound hunting, in which the pursuit of the game itself is a significant part of the pleasure. Every step that the mind takes in its movement towards knowledge is some discovery, which is not only new, but also the best, for a while, at least."
Aristotle gave the classical definition truth – this is the correspondence of thought and subject, knowledge and reality. Truth is knowledge that corresponds to reality. It should be noted that in nature itself there are no truths or errors. They are characteristics of human cognition .
Types of truth:
1.Absolute truth -
This is knowledge, the content of which is not refuted by the subsequent development of science, but is only enriched and specified (for example, the teaching of Democritus about atoms;
This is knowledge, the content of which remains invariant (Pushkin was born in 1799);
This absolutely complete and exhaustive knowledge about the subject . In this understanding, absolute truth is not achievable, because all connections of the subject cannot be explored.
2.Objective truth– this is knowledge about an object, the content of which is the properties and connections of an objectively (independently of a person) existing object. Such knowledge does not bear the imprint of the researcher’s personality. Objective truth - this is the content of knowledge that does not depend on a person, it is an adequate reflection by the subject of the surrounding world.
3. Relative truth- this is incomplete, limited, correct only under certain conditions, knowledge that humanity possesses at this stage of its development. Relative truth contains elements of misconceptions associated with specific historical conditions of knowledge.
4. Concrete truth– this is knowledge, the content of which is true only under certain conditions. For example, “water boils at 100 degrees” is true only under normal atmospheric pressure.
The process of cognition can be represented as a movement towards absolute truth as a goal through the accumulation of the content of objective truth through the clarification and improvement of relative and specific truths.
The opposite of truth, but under certain conditions what passes into it and arises from it, is error.
Misconception - an unintentional discrepancy between our understanding of an object (expressed in corresponding judgments or concepts) and this object itself.
Sources of error can be:
Imperfection of an individual's cognitive abilities;
Prejudices, preferences, subjective moods of the individual;
Poor knowledge of the subject of knowledge, rash generalizations and conclusions.
Misconceptions must be distinguished from:
- errors (the result of an incorrect theoretical or practical action, as well as the interpretation of a given phenomenon);
- lies (conscious, deliberate distortion of reality, deliberate dissemination of obviously incorrect ideas).
The idea that science operates only with truths does not correspond to reality. Misconception is an organic part of the truth and stimulates the process of cognition as a whole. On the one hand, misconceptions lead away from the truth, so a scientist, as a rule, does not consciously put forward obviously incorrect assumptions. But on the other hand, misconceptions often contribute to the creation of problematic situations, stimulating the development of science.
The experience of the history of science allows us to draw an important conclusion: all scientists should have equal rights in the search for truth; no scientist, no scientific school has the right to claim a monopoly in obtaining true knowledge.
The separation of truth from error is impossible without resolving the question of what is criterion of truth .
From the history of attempts to identify criteria for the truth of knowledge:
· Rationalists (R. Descartes, B. Spinoza, G. Leibniz) - the criterion of truth is thinking itself when it clearly and distinctly thinks of an object; the original truths are self-evident and comprehended through intellectual intuition.
· Russian philosopher V.S. Solovyov - “the measure of truth is transferred from the external world to the cognizing subject himself; the basis of truth is not the nature of things and phenomena, but the human mind” in the case of conscientious thinking.
· E. Cassirer - the criterion of truth is the internal consistency of thinking itself.
· Conventionalism (A. Poincare, K. Aidukevich, R. Carnap) - scientists accept scientific theories (conclude an agreement, convention) for reasons of convenience, simplicity, etc. The criterion of truth is the formal-logical consistency of scientific judgments with these agreements.
· Neopositivists (20th century) - the truth of scientific statements is established as a result of their empirical verification, this is the so-called. verification principle. (Verifiability (verification) from the Latin verus - true, and facio - I do). However, we note that often experimental activity cannot give a final answer about the truth of knowledge. This happens when the experiment examines the process “in its pure form,” i.e. in complete isolation from other influencing factors. Experimental testing of social and humanitarian knowledge is significantly limited.
· Pragmatism (W. James) - the truth of knowledge is manifested in its ability to be useful for achieving a particular goal; truth is benefit. (The thesis “everything useful is true” is controversial, since lies can also bring benefits).
Most common criterion of truth knowledge is practice , understood as the socio-historical activity of people. If the use of knowledge in the practical activities of people gives the expected results, then our knowledge correctly reflects reality. Practice as a criterion of truth is considered not as a single experience, not as a one-time act of verification, but social practice in its historical development.
However, this criterion is not universal; for example, it does not work in those branches of knowledge that are far from reality (mathematics, non-classical physics). Then other criteria of truth are proposed:
· Formal-logical criterion. It is applicable to axiomatic-deductive theories and requires compliance with the requirements of internal consistency (this is the main requirement), completeness and interdependence of axioms. When it is not possible to rely on practice, the logical sequence of thought is revealed, its strict adherence to the laws and rules of formal logic. Identifying logical contradictions in reasoning or in the structure of a concept becomes an indicator of error or misconception.
· The principle of simplicity , sometimes called “Occam’s razor” - do not multiply the number of entities unnecessarily. The main requirement of this principle is that to explain the objects under study, it is necessary to introduce a minimum number of initial postulates (accepted without proof of the provisions).
· Axiological criterion , i.e. compliance of knowledge with global ideological, socio-political, moral principles. Particularly applicable in the social sciences.
But the most important criterion of truth is still practice, experience. Practice underlies logical, axiological and all other criteria of truth. Whatever methods of establishing the truth of knowledge exist in science, all of them ultimately (through a number of intermediary links) turn out to be connected with practice.
6. Characteristics of the cognitive abilities of various social groups.
The formation of full-fledged cognitive abilities in children of primary and school age has now been quite well studied. Studying the intellectual level of adults faces serious difficulties. Here, of course, one cannot deny the presence of certain age characteristics, but it is quite difficult to identify such age groups. Researchers have now established that certain age groups have common features and relatively stable signs of their intellectual activity. These characteristics are influenced not only by biological age, but also by other factors: family, place of residence, education, ethnic characteristics and much more. Therefore, people of the same age may belong to different intellectual groups depending on their sociocultural environment.
When measuring mature intelligence using the so-called “D. Wechsler test battery” (tests for awareness, logic, memory, symbol manipulation, comprehension of communication, etc.), the best results were given by the age group from 15 to 25 years, and according to other data - from 25 to 29 years old. Achieving high accuracy in measuring intelligence is quite difficult. Summarizing the data of various measurements, we can say that the growth of intellectual abilities occurs until approximately 20-25 years. Then comes a slight intellectual decline, which becomes more noticeable after 40-45 years and reaches its maximum after 60-65 years (Fig. 4).
Rice. 4. Relationship between intelligence and age
However, such testing does not provide an objective picture, because You cannot study the young, mature and old minds with the same tests.
In a young person, the mind serves, first of all, to assimilate the greatest amount of information and master new ways of activity. The mind of a more mature person is aimed not so much at increasing knowledge, but at solving complex problems based on existing knowledge, experience and his own style of thinking and action. These qualities of the mind are often called wisdom. Of course, over the years, certain functions of the intellect inevitably weaken and are even lost. In elderly and especially senile people, the objectivity of assessments gradually decreases, the rigidity of judgments increases, they often stray into extreme, black-and-white tones on controversial issues of life practice.
Research shows that the natural decline in intellectual activity is restrained by personal talent, education, and social status. People with higher educational levels and those in leadership positions tend to retire later than their peers. In addition, they are more likely to remain intellectually active after retirement by working in advisory or consulting roles.
Among scientists and other specialists in mental and creative work, it is quite natural that there are many intellectual centenarians. For older scientists and engineers, their vocabulary and general erudition hardly change with age; for middle managers, non-verbal communication functions remain at a high level; for accountants, the speed of arithmetic operations remains at a high level.
In addition to age-related characteristics of intelligence, we can also talk about gender and ethnicity.
The question of who is smarter - men or women - is as old as the world. Experimental and test studies carried out over the past two decades have confirmed the fundamental equality of intelligence in people of different sexes. When performing tasks on various mental functions (the ability to generate ideas, originality, originality), no special differences were found between male and female intellects. Many famous psychologists came to similar conclusions independently of each other. However, some superiority of women was found in verbal memory resources and vocabulary of live speech. Men are superior to women in visuospatial orientation.
Thus, although there are intellectual differences between the sexes, they are incomparably small in relation to the individual differences within each sex.
The fundamental equality of intellects does not at all mean their sameness, complete identity of cognitive processes in men and women. IQ tests consistently reveal some differences between boys and girls, boys and girls, men and women. Women, on average, are superior to men in verbal abilities, but inferior to them in mathematical abilities and the ability to navigate in space. Girls usually learn to speak, read and write earlier than boys.
The noted differences should not be absolute. Many men are better at speaking than women, and some women are better at math than the vast majority of men.
An interesting fact is that according to most methods, men receive the highest and lowest possible scores. For women, the spread of individual assessments of mental giftedness is much narrower. In other words, among men there are much more geniuses in science, art and other fields, but there are also much more weak-minded men than women.
Another interesting question that arises before an intelligence researcher is ethnic characteristics. As a rule, ethnic characteristics of intellectual activity and intellectual development are formed against the background of the psychological makeup of the nation.
Hans Eysenck, based on research conducted in the United States, notes that Jews, Japanese and Chinese are superior to representatives of all other nations in all indicators of IQ (intelligence quotient) tests. This is also evidenced by the awarding of the Nobel Prize. American Scientists, which lists America's leading scientists, shows that in this field Jews outnumber non-Jews by about 300%. The Chinese are equally successful in physics and biology. One of the few attempts to typologize national minds known today belongs to a French scientific theorist of the early 20th century. Pierre Duhem. Duhem distinguished between broad minds, but not deep enough, and subtle, insightful minds, although relatively narrow in their scope.
People of broad intelligence, in his opinion, are found among all nations, but there is a nation for which such intelligence is especially characteristic. These are the British. In science and, especially in practice, this “British” type of mind easily operates with complex groupings of individual objects, but it is much more difficult to assimilate purely abstract concepts and formulate general characteristics. In the history of philosophy, an example of this type of mind, from Duhem’s point of view, is F. Bacon.
The French type, Duhem believes, has a particularly subtle mind, loves abstractions and generalizations. It's too narrow though. An example of the French type of mind is R. Descartes. Duhem cited supporting examples not only from the history of philosophy, but also from other sciences.
Whenever an attempt is made to identify a particular national pattern of thought, one should remember the relativity of such differentiation. The national mind is not a stable pattern, like skin color or eye shape; it reflects many features of the sociocultural existence of a people.
Lecture:
Truth, objective and subjective
From the previous lesson you learned that knowledge about the world around us can be obtained through cognitive activity using the senses and thinking. Agree, a person interested in certain objects and phenomena wants to receive reliable information about them. Truth is important to us, that is, truth, which is a universal human value. What is truth, what are its types and how to distinguish truth from lies we will look at in this lesson.
Basic term of the lesson:
True– this is knowledge that corresponds to objective reality.
What does this mean? Objects and phenomena of the surrounding world exist on their own and do not depend on human consciousness, therefore objects of knowledge are objective. When a person (subject) wants to study or research something, he passes the subject of knowledge through consciousness and derives knowledge that corresponds to his own worldview. And, as you know, each person has his own worldview. This means that two people studying the same subject will describe it differently. That's why knowledge about the subject of knowledge is always subjective. That subjective knowledge that corresponds to the objective object of knowledge and is true.
Based on the above, one can distinguish objective and subjective truth. ABOUTobjective truth is called knowledge about objects and phenomena, describing them as they really are, without exaggeration or understatement. For example, MacCoffee is coffee, gold is metal. Subjective truth, on the contrary, refers to knowledge about objects and phenomena that depends on the opinions and assessments of the subject of knowledge. The statement “MacCoffee is the best coffee in the world” is subjective, because I think so, and some people don’t like MacCoffee. Common examples of subjective truth are omens that cannot be proven.
Truth is absolute and relative
Truth is also divided into absolute and relative.
Kinds | Characteristic | Example |
Absolute truth |
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Relative truth |
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Every scientist strives to get as close as possible to the absolute truth. However, often due to the insufficiency of methods and forms of knowledge, a scientist is able to establish only relative truth. Which, with the development of science, is confirmed and becomes absolute, or refuted and turns into error. For example, the knowledge of the Middle Ages that the Earth was flat with the development of science was refuted and began to be considered a delusion.
There are very few absolute truths, much more relative ones. Why? Because the world is changing. For example, a biologist studies the number of animals listed in the Red Book. While he is conducting this research, the numbers are changing. Therefore, it will be very difficult to calculate the exact number.
!!! It is a mistake to say that absolute and objective truth are one and the same. This is wrong. Both absolute and relative truth can be objective, provided that the subject of knowledge has not adjusted the research results to his personal beliefs.
Criteria of truth
How to distinguish truth from error? For this purpose, there are special means of testing knowledge, which are called criteria of truth. Let's look at them:
- The most important criterion is practice – This is an active subject activity aimed at understanding and transforming the world around us.. Forms of practice are material production (for example, labor), social action (for example, reforms, revolutions), scientific experiment. Only practically useful knowledge is considered true. For example, based on certain knowledge, the government carries out economic reforms. If they give the expected results, then the knowledge is true. Based on knowledge, the doctor treats the patient; if he is healed, then the knowledge is true. Practice as the main criterion of truth is part of knowledge and performs the following functions: 1) practice is the source of knowledge, because it is it that pushes people to study certain phenomena and processes; 2) practice is the basis of knowledge, because it permeates cognitive activity from beginning to end; 3) practice is the goal of knowledge, because knowledge of the world is necessary for the subsequent application of knowledge in reality; 4) practice, as already mentioned, is a criterion of truth necessary to distinguish truth from error and lies.
- Compliance with the laws of logic. Knowledge obtained through evidence should not be confusing or internally contradictory. It must also be logically consistent with well-tested and reliable theories. For example, if someone puts forward a theory of heredity that is fundamentally incompatible with modern genetics, one can assume that it is not true.
- Compliance with fundamental scientific laws . New knowledge must comply with Eternal laws. Many of which you study in the lessons of mathematics, physics, chemistry, social studies, etc. These are such as the Law of Universal Gravitation, the Law of Conservation of Energy, the Periodic Law of Mendeleev D.I., the Law of Supply and Demand and others. For example, the knowledge that the Earth is kept in orbit around the Sun corresponds to I. Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation. Another example, if the price of linen fabric increases, then the demand for this fabric decreases, which corresponds to the Law of Supply and Demand.
- Compliance with previously open laws . Example: Newton's first law (law of inertia) corresponds to the law previously discovered by G. Galileo, according to which a body remains at rest or moves uniformly and rectilinearly as long as it is influenced by forces that force the body to change its state. But Newton, unlike Galileo, examined the movement more deeply, from all points.
For the greatest reliability of testing knowledge for truth, it is best to use several criteria. Statements that do not meet the criteria of truth are misconceptions or lies. How are they different from each other? Misconception is knowledge that actually does not correspond to reality, but the subject of knowledge does not know about it until a certain moment and accepts it as truth. A lie is a conscious and intentional distortion of knowledge when the subject of knowledge wants to deceive someone.
Exercise: Write in the comments your examples of truth: objective and subjective, absolute and relative. The more examples you give, the more help you will provide to graduates! After all, it is the lack of specific examples that makes it difficult to correctly and completely solve the tasks of the second part of the CMM.
A person gets to know the world, society and himself with one goal - to know the truth. What is truth, how to determine that this or that knowledge is true, what are the criteria of truth? This is what this article is about.
What is truth
There are several definitions of truth. Here are some of them.
- Truth is knowledge that corresponds to the subject of knowledge.
- Truth is a truthful, objective reflection of reality in human consciousness.
Absolute and relative truth
Absolute truth - This is a person’s complete, exhaustive knowledge of something. This knowledge will not be refuted or supplemented with the development of science.
Examples: a person is mortal, two and two are four.
Relative truth - this is knowledge that will be replenished with the development of science, since it is still incomplete and does not fully reveal the essence of phenomena, objects, etc. This happens due to the fact that at this stage of human development, science cannot yet reach the ultimate essence of the subject being studied.
Example: first people discovered that substances consist of molecules, then of atoms, then of electrons, etc. As we see, at every stage of the development of science, the idea of an atom was true, but incomplete, that is, relative.
Difference between absolute and relative truth is how fully a particular phenomenon or object has been studied.
Remember: absolute truth was always first relative. Relative truth can become absolute with the development of science.
Are there two truths?
No, there are no two truths . There may be several points of view on the subject being studied, but the truth is always the same.
What is the opposite of truth?
The opposite of truth is error.
Misconception - this is knowledge that does not correspond to the subject of knowledge, but is accepted as truth. A scientist believes that his knowledge about a subject is true, although he is mistaken.
Remember: lie- Not is the opposite of truth.
Lie is a category of morality. It is characterized by the fact that the truth is hidden for some purpose, although it is known. Z delusion same - this is not a lie, but a sincere belief that knowledge is true (for example, communism is a delusion, such a society cannot exist in the life of mankind, but entire generations of Soviet people sincerely believed in it).
Objective and subjective truth
Objective truth - this is the content of human knowledge that exists in reality and does not depend on a person, on his level of knowledge. This is the whole world that exists around.
For example, much in the world, in the Universe, exists in reality, although humanity has not yet known it, perhaps it will never know it, but it all exists, an objective truth.
Subjective truth - this is the knowledge acquired by humanity as a result of its cognitive activity, this is everything in reality that has passed through the consciousness of man and is understood by him.
Remember: Objective truth is not always subjective, and subjective truth is always objective.
Criteria of truth
Criteria– this is a word of foreign origin, translated from Greek kriterion - a measure for evaluation. Thus, the criteria of truth are the grounds that will allow one to be convinced of the truth, accuracy of knowledge, in accordance with its subject of knowledge.
Criteria of truth
- Sensual experience - the simplest and most reliable criterion of truth. How to determine if an apple is tasty - try it; how to understand that music is beautiful - listen to it; How to make sure that the color of the leaves is green - look at them.
- Theoretical information about the subject of knowledge, that is, theory . Many objects are not amenable to sensory perception. We will never be able to see, for example, the Big Bang, as a result of which the Universe was formed. In this case, theoretical study and logical conclusions will help to recognize the truth.
Theoretical criteria of truth:
- Compliance with logical laws
- Correspondence of truth to those laws that were discovered by people earlier
- Simplicity of formulation, economy of expression
- Practice. This criterion is also very effective, since the truth of knowledge is proven by practical means .(There will be a separate article about practice, follow the publications)
Thus, the main goal of any knowledge is to establish the truth. This is exactly what scientists do, this is what each of us is trying to achieve in life: know the truth , no matter what she touches.
Test-training for a social studies lesson in 10th grade. Helps to test students' knowledge on the topic, to work on certain tasks in the Unified State Exam format in social studies 2016. All tasks were selected from the website of Dmitry Gushchin - I will solve the Unified State Exam.
The number of the work on the site is also given so that it is convenient to find and solve it online.
Truth and its criteria Test in Unified State Exam formatOption No. 1629242
1. Pro-chi-tay-te the text below, each word denoting something with a letter.
(A) Is-ti-na - knowledge that is absolutely true, objective, corresponds to what we know me-there and yav-le-ni-yam. (B) It is obvious that a person strives to understand the truth primarily for utility purposes, -what practical benefits. (B) Scientists would do research with the help of special methods: em-pi-ri-che-skih and theo-re-ti-che-skih . (D) On the path to understanding the laws of the new development of the world, scientists should be especially responsible. (D) Ways to know and be able to do knowledgeable work, beyond all doubt, must have moral barriers and filters.
Determine which texts are worn
1) fact-ti-che-khar-rak-ter;
2) character of evaluative judgments;
3) ha-rak-ter theo-re-ti-che-skih po-lo-zhe-niy.
Write down in the table under the letter that denotes the name, the number that you define its character -ter.
2. About the text below, in which a number of words are mentioned. You-take-those words from the pre-la-ga-e-my list that cannot be inserted in place of the blanks.
“Practice is the sensual activity of people, their influence on this or that _______(A) for the purpose of its transformation -zo-va-niya for the satisfaction of the study of the layers of living __________ (B). In terms of practical knowledge, you play three roles. Firstly, it is ________ (B) of knowledge, its driving force, gives knowledge of the non-about-ho-di-my fact-ti- Che-sky ma-te-ri-al, under-le-zha-shy generalization and theo-re-ti-che-skoy about-work. Thus, the practice of nurturing knowledge, like the soil of de-re-vo, does not allow him to tear himself away from real life. Secondly, practice is the sphere of application of knowledge. And in this sense, she _______ (G) knowledge. Thirdly, it practically serves _______ (D), measuring the verification of the is-tin-no-sti re-zul-ta-tov of knowledge. Only those results of knowledge that have undergone practical testing can lay claim to _____(E) knowledge. what, on the non-vis-si-most from pro-from-la and for-mis-de-tions.”
The words in the list are given in nominative pas-de-zhe. Each word (word) can be used only once.
You-bi-rai-te-follow-to-va-tel-but one word after another, thought-len-but-for-filling-every miss-pass. Pay attention to the fact that there are more words in the list than you need to fill in the blanks.
Spi-juk ter-mi-nov:
In the table below there are letters that denote pro-pu-schen words. Write down in the table under each letter the number of the word you chose.
3. What is the meaning of society's contributions to the understanding of “is-ti-na”? Attracting the knowledge of the society-science course, make two sentences: one sentence, co-der- yearning information about the ab-so-lu-t-is-not, and one sentence, revealing the inter-connection ab-so-lute and from-no-si-tel-noy.
4. For a long time, people believed that the Earth was flat. How does this appear from the point of view of modern scientific views: from the point of view of the noah or for-blue-de-no? Explain your answer and give one example of erroneousness and the truth of the truth in knowledge of the world.
5. It’s up to you to give a detailed answer to the topic “The problem of knowing the world.” Make a plan in accordance with which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more details are in sub-points.
1.4 Knowledge, truth and its criteria. Bogbaz10, §6, 55-60; Bogprof10, §21, 22.
Cognition is a process of human activity, the main content of which is the reflection of objective reality in his consciousness, and the result is the acquisition of new knowledge about the world around him.
Types of knowledge:
Philosophical
Artistic
Social
Ordinary
The process of cognition involves:
Subject of knowledge– is a cognizing person, endowed with will and consciousness; the whole society.
Object of knowledge– is a knowable object; the whole world around us.
Stages of knowledge:
sensual(sensitive ) cognition. A person receives information through the senses.
1.1 Feeling- reflection of individual properties and qualities of objects in the surrounding world that directly affect the senses;
1.2 Perception- the formation of a holistic image with the help of objects and their properties that directly affect the senses;
1.3 Performance- a form of cognition in which the sensory reflection (sensory image) of objects and phenomena is preserved in consciousness, which allows it to be reproduced mentally even if it is absent and does not affect the organs.
2. Rational cognition(using thinking)
2.1 Concept is a form (type) of thought that reflects the general and essential features of cognizable objects or phenomena.
2.2 Judgment - is a form of thought in which a connection is established between individual concepts and with the help of this connection something is affirmed or denied.
2.3 By inference is called obtaining new judgments based on existing ones through the use of the laws of logical thinking.
The essence of the cognition process is to obtain the most objective, complete and accurate knowledge about the world around us. Different philosophical schools answered the question about the possibility of understanding the world and obtaining true knowledge in different ways. Agnostics believed that it was impossible to obtain reliable knowledge , empiricists- that this can only be done with the help of sensations, and rationalists argued that the criterion of truth is only reason.
True- this is the correspondence of the acquired knowledge to the content of the object of knowledge.
The characteristic feature of truth is:
Objective side shows us the truth in that part of it, the content of which does not depend on us, since it exists in objective reality.
Subjective side indicates the fact that in its form truth is always subjective, since when it is received in the process of cognition, there is an interaction between the object and the subject of cognition, in which the consciousness of the latter takes a direct part
True:
Absolute truth is complete, unchangeable, once and for all established knowledge about any object or phenomenon
Relative truth is incomplete, limited knowledge, true only under certain conditions, which a person (humanity) possesses at a given stage of its development.
Driving force process of cognition, as well as the criterion of truth is practice. In addition to practice, there are And other criteria of truth, in particular formally – logical , which is used when there is no way to rely on practice
DETAILS
6.1. Cognition.
6.1.1. Theory of knowledge.
6.1.2. Cognition and knowledge.
6.1.3. Subject and object of knowledge.
6.2. Forms (sources, stages) of knowledge.
6.2.1. Sensory, experiential knowledge. Feeling. Perception. Performance.
6.2.1. Rational, logical cognition (thinking). Concept. Judgment. Conclusion.
6.2.3. Intuition.
6.3. Sources of knowledge: reason, feeling or intuition?
6.3.1. Rationalism.
6.3.2. Empiricism.
6.3.3. "The Way of the Bee" A compromise between empiricism and rationalism.
6.3.4. Intuitionism. Types of intuition.
6.4. What is truth?
6.4.1. Theories of truth.
6.4.2. Objective, absolute and relative truth.
6.4.3. Does truth exist? Agnosticism.
6.4.4. What is the reason for the relativity of human knowledge?
6.4.5. Criteria of truth.
6.1
. Cognition.
6.1.1. Theory of knowledge.
Epistemology(from Greek. gnosis - knowledge and logos - teaching) - the doctrine of the essence, patterns and forms of knowledge.
6.1.2. Cognition and knowledge.
Cognition– 1) the process of comprehending reality, accumulating and comprehending data obtained in the experience of human interaction with the outside world; 2) the process of active reflection and reproduction of reality in the human mind, the result of which is new knowledge about the world.
Knowledge– 1) a practice-tested result of knowledge of reality, its correct reflection in human thinking; 2) (in a broad sense) any kind of information; 3) (in the narrow sense) information confirmed by scientific means.
6.1.3. Subject and object of knowledge.
The process of cognition presupposes the presence of two sides: the cognizing person (the subject of cognition) and the cognizable object (the object of cognition).
Subject of knowledge(from lat. subjectus – underlying, underlying) – 1) the bearer of objective-practical activity and cognition (individual or social group), the source of activity aimed at the object.
Basic concepts of the subject of cognition.
1) Psychological subject of cognition (isolated subject): the subject is equal to the human individual performing a cognitive act.
This position is close to our everyday experience. The cognizing subject is considered as a passive recorder of external influences, reflecting the object with varying degrees of adequacy. This approach does not take into account the active and constructive nature of the subject’s behavior - the fact that the latter is capable of not only reflecting, but also shaping the object of cognition.
The idea that the knowing mind passively contemplates the world and in this way cognizes it developed in the 17th century (John Locke).
2) Transcendental subject of cognition: there is an invariant and stable “cognitive core” in every person, which ensures the unity of cognition in different eras (Immanuel Kant).
Transcendental(from lat. trascedes – going beyond) – relating to intuitive, a priori (inexperienced or pre-experienced) conditions of the possibility of knowledge. Transcendental is the opposite of empirical.
The results of cognition reflect not only the properties of the subject being studied, but also how we organize the learning process (means and methods of cognition), and the characteristics of ourselves (our positions, previously accumulated experience).
3) Collective subject of knowledge: the main knowing subject – the source of knowledge of nature and society – is considered to be all of humanity.
Object of knowledge(from lat. objectum - subject) - that which opposes the subject in his cognitive activity. The subject itself can act as an object.
The object of cognition means a part of the external world or all real fragments of existence that confront the subject and are specifically subjected to research. So, for example, a person is the object of study of many sciences - biology, medicine, psychology, sociology, philosophy, etc.
The subject is a creative principle actively operating in cognition. An object is something that opposes the subject and towards which his cognitive activity is directed.
6.2
. Forms (sources, stages) of knowledge.
6.2.1. Sensory, experiential knowledge.
Forms of sensory knowledge: 1) sensation, 2) perception, 3) representation.
1) Feeling– a reflection of individual properties of an object, phenomenon, process, arising as a result of their direct impact on the senses.
The classifications of sensations use different bases. According to modality, visual, gustatory, auditory, tactile and other sensations are distinguished.
2) Perception- a sensory image of a holistic picture of an object, process, phenomenon that directly affects the senses.
3) Performance- a sensory image of objects and phenomena stored in consciousness without their direct impact on the senses.
The degree of generalization of a particular representation can be different, and therefore a distinction is made between individual and general representations. Through language, a representation is translated into an abstract concept.
6.2.2. Rational, logical cognition (thinking).
Forms of rational knowledge: 1) concept, 2) judgment, 3) inference.
1)Concept– 1) thought that isolates objects from the subject area and collects them into a class based on their common and distinctive features; 2) a form of thinking that reflects the essential properties, connections, relationships of objects and phenomena.
Volume concepts - a class of objects isolated from a set of objects and generalized in a concept.
For example, the volume of the concept “product” means the set of all products offered to the market both now and in the past or in the future.
Content concepts - a set of essential and distinctive features of an object, quality or set of homogeneous objects reflected in this concept.
For example, the content of the concept of “corruption” is a combination of two essential features: “the fusion of state structures with the structure of the criminal world” and “bribery and corruption of public and political figures, government officials and officials.”
Law of the inverse relationship between content and volume: the wider the scope of a concept, the poorer it is in content, i.e. specific distinctive features.
2) Judgment– 1) a thought that affirms or denies something about the objects of knowledge; 2) a thought that asserts the presence or absence of some state of affairs.
Example: Mammalian teeth have roots.
3)Inference– 1) mental connection of several judgments and the derivation of a new judgment from them; 2) obtaining new judgments based on existing ones using logical thinking.
Any conclusion consists of premises, conclusion and conclusion. The premises of an inference are the initial judgments from which a new judgment is derived.
A conclusion is a new judgment obtained logically from the premises. The logical transition from premises to conclusion is called a conclusion.
Types of inferences:
1) deductive, 2) inductive, 3) traductive (by analogy).
Deduction(from lat. deductio - deduction) - deducing the particular from the general; a path of thinking that leads from the general to the particular, from the general to the particular.
The general form of deduction is syllogism, the premises of which form the indicated general position, and the conclusions form the corresponding particular judgment.
Example:
1st premise: mammalian teeth have roots;
2nd premise: dog is a mammal;
Conclusion (conclusion): a dog's teeth have roots.
Induction (lat. inductio - guidance) - a way of reasoning from particular provisions to general conclusions.
Traduction (lat. traductio - movement) is a logical conclusion in which premises and conclusions are judgments of the same generality.
A traditional inference is an analogy.
Types of tradition: 1) conclusion from individual to individual, 2) conclusion from particular to particular, 3) conclusion from general to general.
6.2.3. Intuition(in medieval Latin intuitio, from intueor - I look closely) - comprehension of the truth by direct observation of it without justification through evidence.
Intuition– 1) the ability of human consciousness, in some cases, to grasp the truth by instinct, by guesswork, relying on previous experience, on previously acquired knowledge; 2) insight; 3) direct cognition, cognitive premonition, cognitive insight; 4) ultra-fast thought process.
6.3
. Sources of knowledge: reason, feeling or intuition?
6.3.1. Rationalism.
Socrates and his student Plato insisted that the basis of cognition and learning are general concepts called universals.
Universals(from lat. universalis – general) – general concepts. The ontological (existential) status of the universal is one of the central problems of medieval philosophy (dispute about the universal of the 10th-14th centuries): do universals exist 1) “before things”, like their eternal ideal prototypes (Platonism, extreme realism), 2) “in things" (Aristotelianism, moderate realism), 3) "after things" in human thinking (nominalism, conceptualism).
These universals are already contained in the human mind from birth and thus knowledge consists of remembering what we already know.
Anamnesis(from Greek. anamnesis recollection, recollection) - according to Plato, knowledge, since all knowledge is the soul’s recollection of the ideas that it contemplated before its union with the body.
A point of view similar to Plato’s on the source and foundations of our knowledge was defended by the French mathematician and philosopher Rene Descartes. To test the reliability of our knowledge, he proposed starting all knowledge with doubt about the available information about the world. By successively eliminating facts that did not stand the test of the principle of doubt, Descartes came to the conclusion that there are only two facts whose truth cannot be doubted.
1) “I think, therefore I exist” (Cogito ergo sum).
2) The second undoubted truth is the existence of God.
The distinctive features of undoubted truths, which allow us to separate them from lies and delusions, are clarity and distinctness. On this basis we can have complete confidence in the truth of all mathematical knowledge, since mathematics deals exclusively with clear and distinct innate ideas.
The theories of knowledge of Plato, Descartes and others like them are called rationalistic. They claim that with the help of reason alone, true knowledge can be obtained. This knowledge is knowledge of universals (general concepts) that are innate to us, and from which particular knowledge can be obtained.
Rationalism(from lat. rationalis reasonable, ratio reason) – 1) a philosophical direction that recognizes reason as the basis of human cognition and behavior.
6.3.2. Empiricism.
Empiricism(from Greek. empeiria - experience), a direction in the theory of knowledge that recognizes sensory experience as the only source of reliable knowledge. Empiricism was formed in the 17th – 18th centuries. (Bacon, Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, Hume).
Sensationalism(from lat. sensus - perception, feeling), a direction in the theory of knowledge, according to which sensations and perceptions are the basis and main form of reliable knowledge. Sensualism is an early form of empiricism.
The philosophers who represent it deny the existence of innate knowledge and are generally skeptical about the possibility of obtaining reliable knowledge based on reason alone.
John Locke tried to prove that we have no innate ideas, and all knowledge comes from impressions received from the senses. The human mind from birth can be likened to a blank slate ( tabula rasa), devoid of any images of ideas.
6.3.3. " The way of the bee».
The question of what we humans can know reliably about the internal and external world is insoluble from the extreme positions of rationalistic and empirical theories. The founder of English empiricism, Francis Bacon, drew attention to this with the help of the allegories “the path of the ant,” “the path of the spider,” and “the path of the bee.”
« Path of the ant“is a method of extreme empiricism, characterized by the simple collection of facts obtained on the basis of sensory impressions, without their systematization and comprehension.
« Way of the Spider” well illustrates the method of extreme rationalism, which attempts to derive knowledge from a few innate ideas. In this way he is similar to a spider, weaving a web from the material that he himself produces.
« The way of the bee“removes the extremes of empiricism and rationalism and represents a two-stage process of cognition: feelings provide data about the properties of objects, which are then processed by the mind using the methods and principles of theoretical thinking.
6.3.4. Intuition as a source of knowledge.
Intutivism- a movement in philosophy that sees intuition as the only reliable means of knowledge.
There have been cases where the formulated results of “insights” lasted for centuries before they received due recognition, were logically justified and found practical application. These, in particular, include Leonardo da Vinci's prediction of the possibility of making heavier-than-air aircraft, Roger Bacon's formulation (though not entirely clear) of the law of constancy of composition and the law of shares (multiple ratios) in chemistry, Francis Bacon's foresight of the possibility of creating diving vessels and the ability to maintain the vital functions of the body when vital organs are removed.
Types of intuition: 1) sensual, 2) intellectual, 3) mystical.
6.4
. True.
6.4.1. What is truth?
1) Ontological
(existential) theory of truth.
Paul Florensky. "The Pillar and Ground of Truth" (1914):
“What is truth?” Pilate asked Truth. He did not receive an answer, because he did not receive it because his question was in vain. The Living Answer stood before him, but Pilate did not see its truth in the Truth. Suppose that the Lord, not only with his screaming silence, but also with quiet words, would answer the Roman Procurator: “I am the Truth.” But even then, again, the questioner would be left without an answer, because he did not know how to recognize the Truth as the truth, he could not be convinced of its authenticity.”
2) Classic ( correspondent) theory of truth.
Aristotle: “To say of a being that it does not exist, or of a non-existent that it is, is to speak falsely; and to say that what exists is and what does not exist means to say what is true.”
True– correspondence (correspondence) between facts and statements about these facts. Truth is a property of statements, judgments or beliefs.
3) Coherent theory of truth (Spinoza, Leibniz, Bradley). Truth is the consistency of a judgment and belief with all statements, judgments or beliefs included in the system to which this judgment belongs.
Coherence(from lat. cohaeres in connection) is the coordinated occurrence of several processes over time.
4) Conventionalism.
Henri Poincare (1854-1912):
“The fundamental principles of Euclid's geometry are nothing more than an agreement, and it would be as unreasonable to inquire whether they are true or false as to ask whether the metric system is true or false. These agreements are only convenient."
Convention (Latin. сonventio rapprochement, meeting; people's assembly; agreement, agreement, deal) – agreement.
5) Pragmatism (Greek. pragma - deed, action): true beliefs (ideas, beliefs) are those beliefs that lead to actions leading to desired or successful results.
6.4.2. Objective, absolute and relative truth.
Objective truth is the content of knowledge, which is determined by the subject being studied itself, does not depend on the preferences and interests of a person.
Absolute truth is complete, exhaustive knowledge about reality; that element of titles which cannot be refuted in the future.
Relative truth is incomplete, limited knowledge; such elements of knowledge that in the process of development of knowledge will change and be replaced by new ones.
Each relative truth means a step forward in the knowledge of absolute truth; if it is scientific, it contains elements, grains of absolute truth.
Absolute truth and relative truth are different levels (forms) of objective truth.
Misconception- deviation from the truth, which we accept as the truth.
The first classification of errors was given by Bacon under the name “idols.”
Some philosophers see the cause of errors in human will (Leibniz, Schopenhauer), while most attribute them to reason or social interests (Marx).
Lie- a statement that does not correspond to the truth, expressed in this form consciously - and this differs from a fallacy.
6.4.3. Does truth exist? Agnosticism.
Agnosticism(Greek a denial, gnosis knowledge) is a philosophical doctrine that denies, in whole or in part, the possibility of knowing the world. Agnosticism limits the role of science only to the knowledge of phenomena.
The opposite of agnosticism is epistemological optimism.
Optimism(from Latin. optimus – best) – 1) the idea that the world is dominated by a positive principle, goodness; a joyful perception of life, imbued with faith in a reasonable and fair better future. The opposite of optimism is pessimism.
Supporters of epistemological optimism do not reject the complexity of knowledge, the complexity and difficulty of identifying the essence of things. At the same time, its different representatives have different arguments proving the inconsistency of agnosticism.
Some of them rely on the clarity and distinctness of thought about objects and their essence, others on the general significance of the results obtained, others on the impossibility of human existence without an adequate reflection of the laws of the objective world, and others point to practice as the leading criterion in determining reliable knowledge about essence of things, etc.
6.4.4. What is the reason for the relativity of human knowledge?
1) The world is endlessly changing.
2) Human cognitive capabilities are limited.
3) The possibilities of knowledge depend on the real historical conditions of their time and are determined by the level of development of spiritual culture, material production, and the available means of observation and experiment.
4) Features of human cognitive activity.
Bacon's doctrine of the ghosts of knowledge.
Francis Bacon(1561 - 1626) - English statesman and philosopher, author of the famous saying: “Knowledge is power, and he who masters knowledge will become powerful.”
True knowledge is hampered by various objective and subjective factors, which Bacon calls “idols” or “ghosts” of knowledge:
1) Idols of the family are contained in the very nature of man, in the limitations of his mind and in the imperfection of his senses. Idols of the race distort knowledge and introduce anthropomorphic elements into it.
2) Idols of the Cave: source – individual characteristics of a person, his origin, upbringing, education, etc.
3) Market idols generated by social relations and the conventions associated with them: language, concepts of everyday and scientific thinking;
4) Theater idols caused by blind faith in the authority of individuals and theories.
6.4.5. What is the criterion (measurement) of truth?
Criterion– (from Greek. kriterion - a means of judgment) - 1) a sign on the basis of which something is assessed, determined or classified; 2) a measure of evaluation.
Criterion of truth- a means of verifying the truth of human knowledge.
1) Empiricism: data from sensory experience;
2) Rationalism: evidence, which is achieved through intellectual intuition (Descartes), “innate intuitions” (Leibniz), logical consistency of theory;
3) Conventionalism: convenience and simplicity of the theory;
With this approach, the question of the truth or falsity of our knowledge is completely eliminated.
4) Pragmatism: truth is the usefulness or efficiency of an idea: “... true is simply beneficial in the way we think”;
5) Marxism: the criterion of truth is practice = material production + scientific experiment.
Practice(from Greek. praktikos – active, active) – material, goal-setting activity of people.
Functions of practice in the process of cognition:
1) starting point, source of knowledge (existing sciences are brought to life by the needs of practice);
2) the basis of knowledge (it is thanks to the transformation of the surrounding world that the most profound knowledge of the properties of the surrounding world occurs);
3) practice is the driving force behind the development of society;
4) practice is the goal of knowledge (a person learns the world in order to use the results of knowledge in practical activities);
5) practice is the criterion of the truth of knowledge.
Main types of practice: 1) scientific experiment, 2) production of material goods and 3) socially transformative activity of the masses.
Practice structure: 1) need, 2) goal, 3) motive, 4) purposeful activity, 5) subject, 6) means and 7) result.
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Practice 1) does not cover the entire real world, moreover, 2) practical confirmation of a theory may not occur immediately, but after many years, but this does not mean that this theory is not true. 3) Such a criterion of truth is relative, since practice itself develops, improves and therefore cannot immediately and completely prove certain conclusions obtained in the process of cognition.
The idea of complementarity of criteria of truth: the leading criterion of truth is practice, which includes material production, accumulated experience, experiment, supplemented by the requirements of logical consistency and, in many cases, the practical usefulness of certain knowledge.